ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Discontinuity Mapping in Natural Caves: A Comparative Study of Manual Data Collection, Structure from Motion, and iPhone 13 Pro Max
 
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Department of Engineering and Terrain Morphology, ETSICCP Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
 
These authors had equal contribution to this work
 
 
Submission date: 2024-11-10
 
 
Final revision date: 2025-03-30
 
 
Acceptance date: 2025-07-15
 
 
Online publication date: 2025-09-15
 
 
Publication date: 2025-09-15
 
 
Corresponding author
Abdelmadjid Benrabah   

Department of Engineering and Terrain Morphology, ETSICCP Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, CALLE DEL PROFESOR ARANGUREN 3, 28040, MADRID, Spain
 
 
Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports 2025;35(4):81-90
 
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ABSTRACT
The stability of shallow caves is significantly influenced by analysing rock discontinuities like faults, joints and stratification. Assessing these characteristics and identifying their orientations is essential for evaluating cave stability. Traditionally, this has been done manually with tools like a compass, but accessibility and time constraints limit these methods. Recently, remote sensing methods like Structure from Motion photogrammetry (SfM) and laser scanning have gained popularity for providing high-resolution models. This study compares manual measurements, SfM, and iPhone 13 Pro Max laser scanning for discontinuity mapping in Badajo Cave (Spain), evaluating each method’s accuracy and efficiency. The results show a strong correlation between the methods, with an average measurement difference of around 5° for dip and dip direction, and the variation between methods was less than 7° in the worst case. The findings highlight the strengths and limitations of each method, with SfM providing high-resolution models but requiring considerable time for processing, and the iPhone 13 Pro Max offering quick results with some limitations in scanning range and accuracy.
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eISSN:2450-8594
ISSN:2080-5187
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